Following parental separation or divorce, children’s voices and their legal right to participate are currently insufficiently guaranteed in families, during mediation, and in courts. There is a lack of scientific knowledge on how best to give effect to child participation. This study investigates whether childrens participation in divorce-related decisions increases their sense of autonomy, relatedness, and competence, and thus improves their general functioning. In addition, possible risks of child participation to their adjustment are examined, as well as individual differences in this regard. The research will result in practical guidelines and tools to improve the participation of children around divorce.

Growing up in harsh environments has been associated with the development of problem behaviors and psychopathology among children, while growing up in supportive environments predicts increased social competence and educational success. As the terminology suggests, the former is generally viewed as unfavorable and the latter as favorable, from a traditional developmental psychopathology perspective. The three projects relevant to this visit each try to understand how children adjust to their environment from an evolutionary perspective. According to this perspective, children are expected to develop in ways that match their early environments (both harsh and supportive), thereby promoting their chances of survival and reproduction in those environments. The PhD project most central to this application has started in October 2012 (ending January 2016). In this project we examine whether children (n=280; 49% girls, Mage= 4.75 years) vary in their susceptibility to rearing. Traditional notions about childrens differing responses to rearing experiences usually describe vulnerable children as being disproportionally affected by adverse experiences (the so-called diathesis-stress model); the differential susceptibility hypothesis instead postulates that children vary more generally in their susceptibility to parenting. Moreover, the same children that are most vulnerable to harsh parenting are thought to profit most from supportive parenting (for better and for worse), and are therefore capable of adjusting to a wide range of environments. Using a combination of experimental, observational, and longitudinal approaches, we test whether children are susceptible for better and for worse, and whether childrens emotional reactivity marks increased susceptibility. The data collection for this project is finished, and the first two papers have been written. During the visit we plan to work together with Dr. Ellis to write two new collaborative papers. The PhD student on this project has visited Dr. Ellis at the University of Arizona in the fall of 2014 on a Fulbright scholarship. A return visit of Dr. Ellis to Utrecht University would be an ideal opportunity to continue collaborating. The second research project to which the visit will contribute focuses on the impact of growing up under harsh environmental conditions on cognitive abilities. It is proposed that harsh environments do not generally impair cognition, rather, peoples minds become developmentally adapted for solving problems that are ecologically relevant in such environments. This hypothesis makes a novel and unique prediction: harsh-adapted people will show enhanced performance on tasks that match recurrent problems in their environments, compared with safe-adapted people. The central goal of the project, which has started in 2014, is to test this prediction. The third research project, which will start fall 2015, will design and test novel anti-bullying interventions. One of these interventions is based on the concept that bullying may be reduced if bullies can be taught to adopt prosocial strategies to achieve non-aggressive status goals. This intervention is guided by the hypothesis that bullying (and other forms of proactive aggression) is ultimately used to achieve adaptive goals; by providing effective, prosocial alternatives that achieve those goals as well (or better), adolescents should reduce their aggression and problem behaviors.

Assessment and treatment for children who often behave aggressively have limited effects. An important reason for this seems to be that aggressive behavior is usually triggered in stressful emotional situations. This complicates improving this behavior in the calm conversational environment of usual treatment. We developed interactive virtual reality to actually evoke aggression in real-life situations with virtual others, to learn to understand their ‘triggers’ and to practice alternative behaviors. We investigated the effects of these new methods in assessment and treatment. Results show that aggressive behavior is explained and treated more effectively in this interactive VR than in existing treatments.

This multimethod project examines whether children (n=180; age 4) vary in their susceptibility to both positive and negative aspects of parenting, in real-time as well as in developmental time. With an experiment we test whether those children that are most affected by parents negative feedback, are also the ones that profit most from parents positive feedback. Through microlevel observations of parent-child interactions we examine whether children differ in their emotions and behaviors towards parents, depending on their susceptibility. Finally, using a longitudinal survey, we study whether childrenss susceptibility to parenting in parent-child interactions can predict childrens development over a year.

We propose to add a seventh and eight bi-annual wave to RADAR, an ongoing longitudinal study. RADAR follows two samples: RADAR young (C1) and RADAR old (C2). The sample of RADAR young consists of 497 adolescents, their families (mother, father and one sibling) and their best friends. The sample of RADAR old consists of 233 adolescents, their families (mother, father and one sibling) and their best friends. The sixth annual wave of data-collection of RADAR young will be completed by June 2011 and the sixth wave of RADAR old has been completed in fall of 2010.