This proposal is for a joint project between internationally-leading, UK heat transfer research groups at the Universities of Edinburgh, Brunel and Queen Mary, London in collaboration with four industrial partners (Thermacore, Oxford Nanosystems, Super Radiator Coils and Rainford Precision) in the areas of micro-fabrication and thermal management. Advances in manufacturing processes and subsequent use of smaller scale electronic devices operating at increased power densities have resulted in a critical demand for thermal management systems to provide intensive localised cooling. To prevent failure of electronic components, the temperature at which all parts of any electronic device operates must be carefully controlled. This can lead to heat removal rate requirements averaging at least 2 MW/m2 across the complete device, with peak rates of up to 10-15 MW/m2 at local 'hot spots'. Direct air cooling is limited to about 0.5 MW/m2 and liquid cooling systems are only capable of 0.7 MW/m2. Other techniques have not yet achieved heat fluxes above 1 MW/m2. Boiling in microchannels offers the best prospect of achieving such high heat fluxes with uniform surface temperature. In a closed system an equally compact and effective condenser is required for heat rejection to the environment. At high heat flux, evaporator dry-out poses a serious problem, leading to localised overheating of the surface and hence potentially to burn out of electronic components reliant on this evaporative cooling. Use of novel mixtures, termed 'self-rewetting fluids', whose surface tension properties lend themselves to improved wetting on hot surfaces, potentially offers scope for enhanced cooling technologies. In this project, two different aqueous alcohol solutions (one of which is self-rewetting) will be studied to ascertain whether they can provide the necessary evaporative and condensation characteristics required for a closed-loop cooling system capable of more than 2 MW/m2. Researchers at the University of Edinburgh will study the fundamentals of wetting and evaporation/condensation of the mixtures to establish the optimum mixture concentrations and heat transfer surface coating for both evaporation and condensation, using advanced imaging techniques. At Brunel University London, applications of the fluids in metallic single and multi microchannel evaporators will be investigated. Researchers at Queen Mary University London will carry out experimental and theoretical work on condensation of the mixtures in compact exchangers. The combined results will feed into the design of a complete microscale closed-loop evaporative cooling system. Thermacore will provide micro-scale heat exchangers and Oxford Nanosystems will provide structured surface coatings. Sustainable Engine Systems, Super Radiator Coils and will provide advice and represent additional ways of taking developments originating from this research to the market. Rainford Precision will provide Brunel University micro tools and support on their use in micromachining.

The advancement of numerous technologies has become increasingly reliant on the ability to dissipate large quantities of heat from small areas. Current designs in power electronics, supercomputers, lasers, X-ray medical devices, nuclear fusion reactor blankets, spacecraft, and hybrid vehicle electronics, and future improvements, rely on record high heat transfer rates. This rapid increase in heat dissipation rates required by such devices has led to a transition from more traditional fan-cooled heat-sink attachments to liquid cooling techniques. Liquid cooling techniques operating in single-phase, however, have now reached their limit being forced to run at very low inlet temperatures and exceedingly high mass flow rates, resulting in unacceptably high pressure drops and surface temperature gradients. Innovative approaches are urgently needed to overcome these significant shortcomings: one such approach is spray-cooling. Spray-cooling uses a nozzle to break up the liquid coolant into fine droplets that impinge individually on a heated surface. 'Low'- and 'high-temperature' spray-cooling applications involve surface temperatures below and above the critical heat flux (CHF), respectively. Single-phase spray-cooling (relies on liquid sensible heat rise only) provides greater operational stability and spatially uniform heat removal than liquid cooling, reducing the likelihood of large surface thermal gradients, particularly important for fragile electronic components. Two-phase spray-cooling (relies on liquid sensible heat rise and latent heat), are superior to single-phase systems and furthermore, compared to pool/flow boiling alternative systems, offer far less resistance to vapour removal from a heated surface enabling superior drop-surface contact . In fact, the CHF increases from 1.2 MW/m2 (for water pool boiling) to 10 MW/m2 for water sprays in two-phase applications. SANGRIA is an ambitious 3-year collaborative research programme aimed at investigating the fundamental mechanisms and transfer processes underlying spray-cooling. This project combines cutting-edge experimental techniques that furnish spatiotemporally-resolved diagnostics of the thermal, interfacial, and hydrodynamic fields, with multi-scale theory, modelling and 3-D high-fidelity numerical simulation that bridge the molecular and continuum-scales. The deep insights generated from SANGRIA will be harnessed to provide tools that are practically implementable by our industrial partners in order to maximise impact. Industrial and academic partners will provide additional technical support and feedback during the research programme plus pathways for direct industrial impact. The industrial partners include possible users of this technology: TMD Ltd (manufacturers of electronic equipment, high heat flux devices); Oxford naNosystems (manufacturers of enhanced heat transfer surfaces); ANSYS (Software development); Siemens (Software development); Spraying Systems Co. (Nozzle manufacturers); Syngenta (users of nozzles). LaVision offered a 15% discount on their Particle Master System. The academic partners from the University of Nottingham, Sorbonne University, Technical University of Darmstadt and Kyushu University are internationally recognised experts in single and two-phase thermal systems, including spray cooling. Participation and presentations during the HEXAG and PIN meetings will facilitate feedback and technology transfer.

Hydrogen will play a central role in the clean economy and in meeting ambitious climate targets. However, to realise its full potential, we must enable low cost, widespread production of zero-carbon H2 by water electrolysis, powered using renewable energy. Underlying this challenge is improved understanding of these complex systems from atoms to cells under real world operating conditions. AMPERE brings together experts from academia, national laboratories and industry to diagnose and understand degradation and performance-limiting processes in electrolysers. Crucially, this project will address the effects of system dynamics, a key but often overlooked aspect of operation when using intermittent energy sources such as solar and wind. We will leverage a unique toolbox of state-of-the-art measurement techniques, spanning length scales from ionic motion in the polymer membrane, to local electrochemical activity across electrode assemblies, water management and bubble formation. This will produce the definitive picture of multi-scale electrolyser dynamics and our focus on realistic production rates and in-situ/operando methods will ensure these insights will have practical relevance. Thus, the outputs of AMPERE will help usher in zero-carbon H2 at scale, as a chemical feedstock and energy vector for clean power generation, heating and transportation.

The provision of cold is a vital foundation of modern society to underpins many aspects of modern life, consumes up to 14% of the UK's electricity, and is also responsible for around 10% of UK's greenhouse gas emissions, including both CO2 associated with their power consumption and leakage of refrigerants with high Global Warming Potential (GWP). In order to achieve net-zero emission target in 2050 in the UK, we must significantly decarbonise the cooling sector. The decarbonisation of the cooling section requires to tackle two key challenges. Firstly, the leakage of traditional, refrigerants with high GWP is a key issue of the greenhouse gas emission of the cooling sector. It is, therefore, necessary to substitute them with low GWP natural refrigerant such as CO2. Secondly, the high-power consumption of the cooling sector also results in greenhouse gas emission if non-renewable power is consumed. Hence, cost-effective cold storage capacity will need to be deployed to maximise the use of intermittent renewable energy and cheap off-peak electricity. The recent study concluded that the addition of cold storage can potentially provide a 43% decrease in peak period consumption. In response to the challenges identified above, this project aims to develop a novel integrated system for cold energy generation and storage using CO2 hydrate as both refrigerant and storage material, contributing to the decarbonisation of the cooling sector in the UK and more widely the global. The multidisciplinary consortium, consisting of six leading researchers from the Universities of Birmingham, Glasgow and Heriot-Watt, processes a wide range of well-balanced expertise including chemical engineering, thermodynamics, heat transfer, CFD, and economics to address several key scientific and technical challenges, and is further supported by several leading industrial partners to maximise knowledge exchange and impact delivery.

Boiling phenomena are central to heating and cooling duties in many industries, such as cooling and refrigeration, power generation, and chemical manufacture. Limitations to boiling heat transfer arise through surface dry-out at high heat flux, leading to localised hot-spots on heat transfer surfaces and larger equipment requirements. Whilst this is a significant problem for many industries, it becomes even more of an issue when dealing with small-scale systems, such as those used for cooling of microelectronics, where failure to remove heat effectively leads to localised overheating and potential damage of components. Spatially non-uniform and unsteady dissipative heat generation in such systems is detrimental to their performance and longevity. The effective heat exchanger area is of order sq. cm, with heat fluxes of order MW/sqm. This requires a transformative, step-change, beyond the current state-of-the-art for cooling heat fluxes between 2-15 MW/sqm at local "hot spots" to prevent burn out. A number of attempts have already been made to extend the upper boundary for the heat flux through alteration of surface characteristics with the aim of improved nucleation of vapour bubbles, bubble detachment, and subsequent rewetting of the surface by liquid. Despite the progress made, previous work on surfaces for pool- (and potentially flow-) boiling does not involve a rational approach for developing optimal surface topography. For instance, nucleate boiling heat transfer (NBHT) decreases with increasing wettability, and the designer must consider the nucleation site density, associated bubble departure diameter, and frequency related to the surface structure and fluid phase behaviour. For high surface wettability, the smaller-scale surface structure characteristics (e.g. cavities) can act as nucleation sites; for low wettability, the cavity dimensions, rather than its topology, will dominate. Therefore, characterising surfaces in terms of roughness values is insufficient to account for the changes in the boiling curve: the fluid-surface coupling must be studied in detail for the enhancement of NBHT and the critical heat flux. EMBOSS brings together a multi-disciplinary team of researchers from Brunel, Edinburgh, and Imperial, and six industrial partners and a collaborator (Aavid Thermacore, TMD ltd, Oxford Nanosystems, Intrinsiq Materials, Alfa Laval, CALGAVIN, and OxfordLasers) with expertise in cutting-edge micro-fabrication, experimental techniques, and molecular-, meso- and continuum-scale modelling and simulation. The EMBOSS framework will inform the rational design, fabrication, and optimisation of operational prototypes of a pool-boiling thermal management system. Design optimality will be measured in terms of materials and energy savings, heat-exchange equipment efficiency and footprint, reduction of emissions, and process sustainability. The collaboration with our partners will ensure alignment with the industrial needs, and will accelerate technology transfer to industry. These partners will provide guidance and advice through the project progress meetings, which some of them will also host. In addition, Alfa Laval will provide brazed heat exchangers as condensers for the experimental work, Intrinsiq will provide copper ink for coating surfaces and Oxford nanoSystems will provide nano-structured surface coatings. The project will integrate the challenges identified by EPSRC Prosperity Outcomes and the Industrial Strategy Challenge Fund in Energy (Resilient Nation), manufacturing and digital technologies (Resilient Nation, Productive Nation), as areas to drive economic growth.